Nepenthes

Kerajaan : Plantae, Divisi : Magnoliophyta, Kelas : Magnoliopsida, Ordo : Caryophyllales, Famili : Nephenthaceae, Genus : Nephenthes.

Kantong semar atau dalam nama latinnya Nepenthes sp. pertama kali dikenalkan oleh J.P Breyne pada tahun 1689. Nepenthes sp. merupakan tanaman unik dari hutan yang belakangan menjadi trend sebagai tanaman khas komersil di Indonesia. Karena bentuknya yang unik, sehingga tanaman ini mulai diperjualbelikan oleh masyarakat.

Sampai dengan saat ini tercatat terdapat 103 jenis kantong semar yang sudah dipublikasikan. Tumbuhan ini diklasifikasikan sebagai tumbuhan karnivora karena memangsa serangga. Kemampuannya itu disebabkan oleh adanya organ berbentuk kantong yang menjulur dari ujung daunnya. Organ itu disebut pitcher atau kantong. Kemampuannya yang unik dan asalnya yang dari negara tropis itu menjadikan kantong semar sebagai tanaman hias pilihan yang eksotis di Jepang, Eropa, Amerika dan Australia. Sayangnya, di negaranya sendiri justru tak banyak yang mengenal dan memanfaatkannya. Selain kemampuannya dalam menjebak serangga, keunikan lain dari tanaman  ini adalah bentuk, ukuran, dan corak warna kantongnya. Secara keseluruhan, tumbuhan ini memiliki lima bentuk kantong, yaitu bentuk tempayan, bulat telur (oval), silinder, corong, dan pinggang.

Kantong semar tumbuh dan tersebar mulai dari Australia bagian utara, Asia Tenggara, hingga Cina bagian Selatan. Indonesia sendiri memiliki Pulau Kalimantan dan Sumatera sebagai surga habitat tanaman ini. Dari 64 jenis yang hidup di Indonesia, 32 jenis diketahui terdapat di Borneo sebagai pusat penyebaran kantong semar. Pulau Sumatera menempati urutan kedua dengan 29 jenis yang sudah berhasil diidentifikasi. Keragaman jenis kantong semar di pulau lainnya belum diketahui secara pasti. Namun berdasarkan hasil penelusuran spesimen herbarium di Herbarium Bogoriense, Bogor, ditemukan bahwa di Sulawesi minimum sepuluh jenis, Papua sembilan jenis, Maluku empat jenis, dan Jawa dua jenis.

Kantong semar hidup di tempat-tempat terbuka atau agak terlindung di habitat yang miskin unsur hara dan memiliki kelembaban udara yang cukup tinggi. Tanaman ini bisa hidup di hutan hujan tropik dataran rendah, hutan pegunungan, hutan gambut, hutan kerangas, gunung kapur, dan padang savana. Berdasarkan ketinggian tempat tumbuhnya, kantong semar dibagi menjadi tiga kelompok yaitu kantong semar dataran rendah, menengah, dan dataran tinggi. Karakter dan sifat kantong semar berbeda pada tiap habitat. Beberapa jenis kantong semar yang hidup di habitat hutan hujan tropik dataran rendah dan hutan pegunungan bersifat epifit, yaitu menempel pada batang atau cabang pohon lain. Pada habitat yang cukup ekstrim seperti di hutan kerangas yang suhunya bisa mencapai 30º C pada siang hari, kantong semar beradaptasi dengan daun yang tebal untuk menekan penguapan air dari daun. Sementara kantong semar di daerah savana umumnya hidup terestrial, tumbuh tegak dan memiliki panjang batang kurang dari 2 m.

Status tanaman kantong semar termasuk tanaman yang dilindungi berdasarkan Undang-Undang No. 5 tahun 1990 tentang Konservasi Sumberdaya Hayati dan Ekosistemnya serta Peraturan Pemerintah No. 7/1999 tentang Pengawetan Jenis Tumbuhan dan Satwa. Hal ini sejalan dengan regulasi Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), dari 103 spesies kantong semar di dunia yang sudah dipublikasikan, 2 jenis: N. rajah dan N. khasiana masuk dalam kategori Appendix I. Sisanya berada dalam kategori Appendix II. Itu berarti segala bentuk kegiatan perdagangan sangat dibatasi.

Javan Hawk

Kingdom: Animalia, Phylum: Chordata, Class: Aves, Order: Falconiformes, Family: Accipitridae, Genus: Nisaetus, Species: N. bartelsi

The Javan Hawk-eagle, Nisaetus bartelsi (earlier under Spizaetus) is a medium-sized, approximately 61 cm long, dark brown raptor in the family Accipitridae. It has a long crest, rufous head and neck, and heavily barred black below. The crest is black with white tip. Both sexes are similar. The young is duller and has unmarked underparts.

An Indonesian endemic, the Javan Hawk-eagle is distributed in humid tropical forests of Java. Because of the plumages variability of Spizaetus eagle, the Javan Hawk-eagle was not recognised as a full species until 1953.

One of the rarest of all raptors, the Javan Hawk-eagle is believed to be a monogamous species. The female usually lays one egg in nest high on top of forest trees. The diet consists mainly of birds, lizards, fruit bats and mammals.

The Javan Hawk-eagle is the national bird of Indonesia, where it is commonly referred to as Garuda, from the mythical bird-like creatures in Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. The scientific name commemorates Hans Bartels.

Due to ongoing habitat loss, small population size, limited range and hunting in some areas, the Javan Hawk-eagle is evaluated as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES.

Daun bayam atasi anemia

Penyakit anemia timbul sebagai akibat dari kekurangan zat besi (zat pembentuk sela darah merah). Anemia dapat menyebabkan tubuh menjadi mudah lemas. Adapun tanda-tanda penyakit ini adalah muka pucat, badan sering gemetar, pandangan kabur bila berdiri setelah duduk terlalu lama, tangan dan kaki sering kesemutan.

Cara sederhana untuk mengatasi penyakit ini adalah dengan menggunakan ramuan dari daun bayam. Adapun caranya adalah sebagai berikut : Ambil beberapa lembar daun bayam, satu butir telur ayam kampung dan madu murni secukupnya. Cuci daun bayam sampai bersih, kemudian tumbuk sampai halus, setelah itu diperas untuk diambil airnya. Campurkan air perasan bayam tersebut dengan telur ayam dan madu, aduk hingga merata. Minumlah ramuan tersebut tiga kali sehari dan ulangi sampai beberapa kali.

Daun sirih obati sakit mata

Mata sakit, berair dan perih sangatlah mengganggu, selain itu penyakit mata ini juga sangat mudah menular. Tidak mengherankan jika salah satu anggota keluarga terjangkit penyakit ini maka seluruh anggota keluarga yang lain juga ikut tertular.

Cara yang sederhana yang dapat kita lakukan untuk mengobati penyakit mata tersebut adalah : Ambil beberapa lembar daun sirih, cuci hingga bersih dan rebuslah dengan ditambahkan garam dapur secukupnya, tunggu sampai mendidih. Setelah itu angkat dari kompor dan tunggu sampai dingin, kemudian saring menggunakan kain bersih. Gunakan air saringan tersebut untuk mencuci mata yang sakit setiap hari tiga kali.

Sumatran tiger

Kingdom: Animalia, Phylum: Chordata, Class: Mammalia, Order: Carnivora, Family: Felidae, Genus: Panthera, Species: P. tigris, Subspecies: P. t. sumatrae

Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) is a subspecies of tiger found on the Indonesian island of Sumatra. Recent genetic testing has revealed the presence of unique genetic markers, which isolate Sumatran tigers from all mainland subspecies. About 400-500 wild Sumatran tigers were believed to exist in 1998, but their numbers have continued to decline. According to the RSPB in March 2008 there were approximately 300 Sumatran Tigers remaining in the wild.

In 2006 the Indonesia Forestry Service, the Natural Resources and Conservational Agency (BKSDA) and the Sumatran Tiger Conservation Program sat down with commercial concession holders and Asia Pulp & Paper and set the foundations for the Senepis Buluhala Tiger Sanctuary, an area that covered 106,000 hectares in Riau by 2008. These organizations formed The Tiger Conservation Working Group with other interested parties and the project is recognised as a pioneering initiative. Current studies include the identifying of feeding behavior of tigers to develop strategies that will help protect both tigers and human settlements.

In 2007, the Indonesian Forestry Ministry and Safari Park established cooperation with the Australia Zoo for the conservation of Sumatran Tigers and other endangered species. The cooperation agreement was marked by the signing of a Letter of Intent on 'Sumatran Tiger and other Endangered Species Conservation Program and the Establishment of a Sister Zoo Relationship between Taman Safari and Australia Zoo' at the Indonesian Forestry Ministry office on July 31, 2007. The program includes conserving Sumatran Tigers and other endangered species in the wild, efforts to reduce conflicts between tigers and humans and rehabilitating Sumatran Tigers and reintroducing them to their natural habitat.

Javan rhinoceros

Kingdom: Animalia, Phylum: Chordata, Class: Mammalia, Order: Perissodactyla, Family: Rhinocerotidae, Genus: Rhinoceros, Species: R. sondaicus

The Javan Rhinoceros (Sunda Rhinoceros to be more precise) or Lesser One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) is a member of the family Rhinocerotidae and one of five extant rhinoceroses. It belongs to the same genus as the Indian Rhinoceros, and has similar mosaicked skin which resembles armor, but at 3.1–3.2 m (10–10.5 feet) in length and 1.4–1.7 m (4.6–5.8 ft) in height, it is smaller than the Indian Rhinoceros, and is closer in size to the Black Rhinoceros. Its horn is usually less than 25 cm (10 inches), smaller than those of the other rhino species.

Once the most widespread of Asian rhinoceroses, the Javan Rhinoceros ranged from the islands of Indonesia, throughout Southeast Asia, and into India and China. The species is now critically endangered, with only two known populations in the wild, and none in zoos. It is possibly the rarest large mammal on earth. A population of as few as 40 live in Ujung Kulon National Park on the island of Java in Indonesia and a small population, estimated in 2007 to be no more than eight, survives in Cat Tien National Park in Vietnam. The decline of the Javan Rhinoceros is attributed to poaching, primarily for their horns, which are highly valued in traditional Chinese medicine, fetching as much as $30,000 per kilogram on the black market. Loss of habitat, especially as the result of wars, such as the Vietnam War, in Southeast Asia, has also contributed to the species's decline and hindered recovery. The remaining range is only within two nationally protected areas, but the rhinos are still at risk from poachers, disease and loss of genetic diversity leading to inbreeding depression. None are held in captivity.

The Javan Rhino can live approximately 30–45 years in the wild. It historically inhabited lowland rain forest, wet grasslands and large floodplains. The Javan Rhino is mostly solitary, except for courtship and child-rearing, though groups may occasionally congregate near wallows and salt licks. Aside from humans, adults have no predators in their range. The Javan Rhino usually avoids humans, but will attack when it feels threatened. Scientists and conservationists rarely study the animals directly due to their extreme rarity and the danger of interfering with such an endangered species. Researchers rely on camera traps and fecal samples to gauge health and behavior. Consequently, the Javan Rhino is the least studied of all rhino species. On February 28, 2011, a video was released by WWF and Indonesia's National Park Authority which captured two rhinos with their calves. This motion triggered video proved that these animals are still breeding in the wild.

The main factor in the continued decline of the Javan Rhinoceros population has been poaching for horns, a problem that affects all rhino species. The horns have been a traded commodity in China for over 2,000 years where they are believed to have healing properties in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Historically, its hide was used to make armor for Chinese soldiers and some local tribes in Vietnam believed the hide can be used to make an antidote for snake venom. Because the rhinoceros's range encompasses many areas of poverty, it has been difficult to convince local people not to kill a seemingly useless animal which could be sold for a large sum of money. When the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora first went into effect in 1975, the Javan Rhinoceros was placed under complete Appendix 1 protection: all international trade in the Javan Rhinoceros and products derived from it is illegal. Surveys of the rhinoceros horn black market have determined that Asian rhinoceros horn fetches a price as high as $30,000 per kilogram, three times the value of African rhinoceros horn.

Loss of habitat because of agriculture has also contributed to its decline, though this is no longer as significant a factor because the rhinoceros only lives in two nationally protected parks. Deteriorating habitats have hindered the recovery of rhino populations that fell victim to poaching. Even with all the conservation efforts, the prospects for the Javan Rhinoceros's survival are grim. Because the populations are restricted to two small areas, they are very susceptible to disease and the problems of inbreeding. Conservation geneticists estimate that a population of 100 rhinos would be needed to preserve the genetic diversity of this conservation reliant species.

The Ujung Kulon peninsula was devastated by the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883. The Javan Rhinoceros recolonized the peninsula after the explosion, but humans never returned in large numbers, thus creating a haven. In 1931, as the Javan Rhinoceros was on the brink of extinction in Sumatra, the government of the Dutch Indies declared the rhino a legally protected species, which it has remained ever since. In 1967 when a census was first conducted of the rhinos in Ujung Kulon, only 25 animals were recorded. By 1980 that population had doubled, and has remained steady at about 50 ever since. Although the rhinos in Ujung Kulon have no natural predators, they have to compete for scarce resources with wild cattle which may keep the rhino's numbers below the peninsula's carrying capacity. Ujung Kulon is managed by the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry. Evidence of at least four baby rhinos was discovered in 2006, the most ever documented for the species.

Ozone depletion

Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady decline of about 4% per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events.

The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning, but the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens. The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of man-made Halocarbon refrigerants (CFCs, freons, halons.) These compounds are transported into the stratosphere after being emitted at the surface. Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of Halocarbons increased.

CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (280–315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs, halons as and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.

The most pronounced decrease in ozone has been in the lower stratosphere. However, the ozone hole is most usually measured not in terms of ozone concentrations at these levels (which are typically of a few parts per million) but by reduction in the total column ozone, above a point on the Earth's surface, which is normally expressed in Dobson units, abbreviated as "DU". Marked decreases in column ozone in the Antarctic spring and early summer compared to the early 1970s and before have been observed using instruments such as the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS).

Reductions of up to 70% in the ozone column observed in the austral (southern hemispheric) spring over Antarctica and first reported in 1985 (Farman et al. 1985) are continuing. Through the 1990s, total column ozone in September and October have continued to be 40–50% lower than pre-ozone-hole values. In the Arctic the amount lost is more variable year-to-year than in the Antarctic. The greatest declines, up to 30%, are in the winter and spring, when the stratosphere is colder.

Reactions that take place on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play an important role in enhancing ozone depletion. PSCs form more readily in the extreme cold of Antarctic stratosphere. This is why ozone holes first formed, and are deeper, over Antarctica. Early models failed to take PSCs into account and predicted a gradual global depletion, which is why the sudden Antarctic ozone hole was such a surprise to many scientists.

In middle latitudes it is preferable to speak of ozone depletion rather than holes. Declines are about 3% below pre-1980 values for 35–60°N and about 6% for 35–60°S. In the tropics, there are no significant trends.

Ozone depletion also explains much of the observed reduction in stratospheric and upper tropospheric temperatures. The source of the warmth of the stratosphere is the absorption of UV radiation by ozone, hence reduced ozone leads to cooling. Some stratospheric cooling is also predicted from increases in greenhouse gases such as CO₂; however the ozone-induced cooling appears to be dominant.

Daun pepaya obati influenza

Influensa merupakan salah satu penyakit yang disebabkan oleh virus. Penyakit ini termasuk penyakit yang mudah sekali menular. Apabila anda influenza, segeralah diobati karena dengan demikian dapat mencegah semakin meluasnya penyakit tersebut. Penyakit ini sringkali mewabah pada saat terjadi pergantian musim terutama dari musim kemarau ke musim penghujan. Gejala terjangkitnya penyakit iniadalah badan meriang, hidung berair dan kadang-kadang diikuti batuk-batuk.

Berikut ini resep tradisional yang dapat dicoba untuk mengatasi influenza. Bahan-bahan yang diperlukan : 3 lembar daun papaya yang masih muda, garam dapur secukupnya, gula merah secukupnya.

Cara membuat ramuan : daun papaya dicuci bersih, kemudian ditumbuk sampai halus. Setelah itu diperas dan disaring airnya, lalu dicampur dengan garam dan gula merah. Aduk hingga rata lalu minum setiap hari tiga kali dengan teratur.

Ozone layer

The ozone layer is a layer in Earth's atmosphere which contains relatively high concentrations of ozone (O₃). This layer absorbs 97–99% of the Sun's high frequency ultraviolet light, which is damaging to life on Earth. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from approximately 13 to 40 kilometres (8.1 to 25 mi) above Earth, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson. Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G. M. B. Dobson, who developed a simple spectrophotometer (the Dobsonmeter) that could be used to measure stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958 Dobson established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations, which continue to operate to this day. The "Dobson unit", a convenient measure of the columnar density of ozone overhead, is named in his honor.

The photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer were discovered by the British physicist Sidney Chapman in 1930. Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet light striking oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O₂), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O₂ to create ozone, O₃. The ozone molecule is also unstable (although, in the stratosphere, long-lived) and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule of O₂ and an atom of atomic oxygen, a continuing process called the ozone-oxygen cycle, thus creating an ozone layer in the stratosphere, the region from about 10 to 50 kilometres (33,000 to 160,000 ft) above Earth's surface. About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere. Ozone concentrations are greatest between about 20 and 40 kilometres (12 and 25 mi), where they range from about 2 to 8 parts per million. If all of the ozone were compressed to the pressure of the air at sea level, it would be only a few millimeters thick.

Although the concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the sun. UV radiation is divided into three categories, based on its wavelength; these are referred to as UV-A (400–315 nm), UV-B (315–280 nm), and UV-C (280–100 nm). UV-C, which would be very harmful to all living things, is entirely screened out by ozone at around 35 kilometres (115,000 ft) altitude. UV-B radiation can be harmful to the skin and is the main cause of sunburn; excessive exposure can also cause genetic damage, resulting in problems such as skin cancer. The ozone layer is very effective at screening out UV-B; for radiation with a wavelength of 290 nm, the intensity at the top of the atmosphere is 350 million times stronger than at the Earth's surface. Nevertheless, some UV-B reaches the surface. Most UV-A reaches the surface; this radiation is significantly less harmful, although it can potentially cause genetic damages.

Daun sirih obati batuk

Penyakit batuk menyerang seseorang tidak kenal musim, baik musim panas maupun musim hujan. Bila penyakit ini sudah menyerang tenggorokan terasa gatal, dada terasa panas, dan sukar sekali tidur. Apabila anda menderita batuk, baik batuk kering maupun batuk basah dan anda belum berhasil mengatasinya, cobalah dengan menggunakan resep sederhana ini.

Bahan-bahan : selembar daun sirih, segenggam daun saga dan gula merah secukupnya.

Cara membuat ramuan : Daun sirih dan daun saga dicuci bersih kemudian direbus dengan menggunakan 2 gelas air putih. Tunggu sampai mendidih. Dan bila sudah mendidih, masukkan gula merah dan biarkan airnya menyusut sampai kira-kira tinggal satu gelas. Setelah itu angkat ramuan dari kompor, lalu biarkan sampai dingin. Bila sudah dingin, saringlah airnya dan minum 2 kali sehari yaitu pada tiap pagi dan sore.

Dengan cara sederhana dan mudah ini, semoga batuk yang mengganggu kesehatan anda ini akan segera sembuh.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis from the Greek photo, "light," and synthesis, "putting together", "composition" is a process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria, but not in archaea. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can create their own food. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. Photosynthesis is vital for all aerobic life on Earth. As well as maintaining the normal level of oxygen in the atmosphere, nearly all life either depends on it directly as a source of energy, or indirectly as the ultimate source of the energy in their food (the exceptions are chemoautotrophs that live in rocks or around deep sea hydrothermal vents). The rate of energy capture by photosynthesis is immense, approximately 100 terawatts, which is about six times larger than the power consumption of human civilization. As well as energy, photosynthesis is also the source of the carbon in all the organic compounds within organisms' bodies. In all, photosynthetic organisms convert around 100–115  petagrams of carbon into biomass per year.

Although photosynthesis can happen in different ways in different species, some features are always the same. For example, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called photosynthetic reaction centers that contain chlorophylls. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. Some of the light energy gathered by chlorophylls is stored in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The rest of the energy is used to remove electrons from a substance such as water. These electrons are then used in the reactions that turn carbon dioxide into organic compounds. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, this is done by a sequence of reactions called the Calvin cycle, but different sets of reactions are found in some bacteria, such as the reverse Krebs cycle in Chlorobium. Many photosynthetic organisms have adaptations that concentrate or store carbon dioxide. This helps reduce a wasteful process called photorespiration that can consume part of the sugar produced during photosynthesis.

The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved about 3,500 million years ago, early in the evolutionary history of life, when all forms of life on Earth were microorganisms and the atmosphere had much more carbon dioxide. They most likely used hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water. Cyanobacteria appeared later, around 3,000 million years ago, and drastically changed the Earth when they began to oxygenate the atmosphere, beginning about 2,400 million years ago. This new atmosphere allowed the evolution of complex life such as protists. Eventually, no later than a billion years ago, one of these protists formed a symbiotic relationship with a cyanobacterium, producing the ancestor of many plants and algae. The chloroplasts in modern plants are the descendants of these ancient symbiotic cyanobacteria.

Rafflesia

Kingdom: Plantae, (unranked): Angiosperms, (unranked): Eudicots, (unranked): Rosids, Order: Malpighiales, Family: Rafflesiaceae, Genus: Rafflesia

Rafflesia is a genus of parasitic flowering plants. It contains approximately 28 species (including four incompletely characterized species as recognized by Willem Meijer in 1997), all found in southeastern Asia, on the Borneo, Sumatra, and the Philippines.

Rafflesia was found in the Indonesian rain forest by an Indonesian guide working for Dr. Joseph Arnold in 1818, and named after Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, the leader of the expedition. It was discovered even earlier by Louis Deschamps in Java between 1791 and 1794, but his notes and illustrations, seized by the British in 1803, were not available to western science until 1861.

The plant has no stems, leaves or true roots. It is an endoparasite of vines in the genus Tetrastigma (Vitaceae), spreading its absorptive organ, the haustorium, inside the tissue of the vine. The only part of the plant that can be seen outside the host vine is the five-petaled flower. In some species, such as Rafflesia arnoldii, the flower may be over 100 centimetres (39 in) in diameter, and weigh up to 10 kilograms (22 lb). Even the smallest species, R. baletei, has 12 cm diameter flowers. The flowers look and smell like rotting flesh, hence its local names which translate to "corpse flower" or "meat flower" (but see below). The vile smell that the flower gives off attracts insects such as flies, which transport pollen from male to female flowers. Most species have separate male and female flowers, but a few have bisexual flowers. Little is known about seed dispersal. However, tree shrews and other forest mammals apparently eat the fruits and disperse the seeds. Rafflesia is an official state flower of Indonesia. 

The name "corpse flower" applied to Rafflesia is confusing because this common name also refers to the Titan Arum (Amorphophallus titanum) of the family Araceae. Moreover, because Amorphophallus has the world's largest unbranched inflorescence, it is sometimes mistakenly credited as having the world's largest flower. Both Rafflesia and Amorphophallus are flowering plants, but they are still distantly related. Rafflesia arnoldii has the largest single flower of any flowering plant, at least when one judges this by weight. Amorphophallus titanum has the largest unbranched inflorescence, while the Talipot palm (Corypha umbraculifera) forms the largest branched inflorescence, containing thousands of flowers; this plant is monocarpic, meaning that individuals die after flowering.

World Wide Fund

The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization working on issues regarding the conservation, research and restoration of the environment, formerly named the World Wildlife Fund, which remains its official name in Canada and the United States. It is the world's largest independent conservation organization with over 5 million supporters worldwide, working in more than 90 countries, supporting around 1300 conservation and environmental projects around the world. It is a charity, with approximately 60% of its funding coming from voluntary donations by private individuals. 45% of the fund's income comes from the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States.

The group says its mission is "to halt and reverse the destruction of our environment". Currently, much of its work focuses on the conservation of three biomes that contain most of the world's biodiversity: forests, freshwater ecosystems, and oceans and coasts. Among other issues, it is also concerned with endangered species, pollution and climate change.

The idea for a fund on behalf of endangered animals was initially proposed by Victor Stolan to Julian Huxley in response to articles he published in the Observer. This proposal led Julian Huxley to put Victor Stolan in contact with Max Nicholson, a person that had had thirty years experience of linking progressive intellectuals with big business interests through the Political and Economic Planning think tank. Max Nicholson thought up the name of the organization. WWF was conceived on 29 April 1961, under the name of World Wildlife Fund, and its first office was opened on 11 September that same year in Morges, Switzerland. Godfrey A. Rockefeller also played an important role in its creation, assembling the first staff. Its establishment marked with the signing of the founding document called Morges Manifesto  that lays out the formulation ideas of its establishment. A separate organization, The American Conservation Association, was merged into the WWF.

WWF has set up offices and operations around the world. It originally worked by fundraising and providing grants to existing non-governmental organizations, based on the best-available scientific knowledge and with an initial focus on the protection of endangered species. As more resources became available, its operations expanded into other areas such as the preservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of natural resources, the reduction of pollution, and climate change. The organization also began to run its own conservation projects and campaigns, and by the 1980s started to take a more strategic approach to its conservation activities.

In 1986, the organization changed its name to World Wide Fund for Nature, to better reflect the scope of its activities, retaining the WWF initials. However, it continues to operate under the original name in the United States and Canada.

In the 1990s, WWF revised its mission to: “Stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature, by:

• conserving the world's biological diversity

• ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainable

• promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption.”

WWF scientists and many others identified 238 ecoregions that represent the world's most biologically outstanding terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats, based on a worldwide biodiversity analysis which the organization says was the first of its kind. In the early 2000s, its work was focused on a subset of these ecoregions, in the areas of forest, freshwater and marine habitat conservation, endangered species conservation, climate change, and the elimination of the most toxic chemicals.

Komodo dragon

Kingdom: Animalia, Phylum: Chordata, Class: Reptilia, Order: Squamata, Suborder: Lacertilia, Family: Varanidae, Genus: Varanus, Subgenus: V. (Varanus) Species: V. komodoensis

The Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) is a large species of lizard found in the Indonesian islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, Gili Motang and Gili Dasami. A member of the monitor lizard family (Varanidae), it is the largest living species of lizard, growing to a maximum of length 3 metres (9.8 ft) in rare cases and weighing up to around 70 kilograms (150 lb). Their unusual size has been attributed to islang gigantism, since there are no other carnivorous animals to fill the niche on the islands where they live. However, recent research suggests that the large size of komodo dragons may be better understood as representative of a relict population of very large varanid lizards that once lived across Indonesia and Australia, most of which, along with other megafauna, died out after the Pleistocene. Fossils very similar to V. komodoensis have been found in Australia dating to greater than 3.8 million years ago, and its body size remained stable on Flores, one of the handful of Indonesian islands where it is currently found, ever since Flores (along with neighboring islands) were isolated by rising sea levels approximately 900,000 years ago. As a result of their size, these lizards dominate the ecosystem in which they live. Komodo dragons hunt and ambush prey including invertebrates, birds, and mammals. The diet of big Komodo dragons mainly consists of deer, though they also eat considerable amounts of carrion.

Mating begins between May and August, and the eggs are laid in September. About twenty eggs are deposited in abandoned megapode nests or in a self-dug nesting hole. The eggs are incubated for seven to eight months, hatching in April, when insects are most plentiful. Young Komodo dragons are vulnerable and therefore dwell in trees, safe from predators and cannibalistic adults. They take about eight to nine years to mature, and are estimated to live for up to 30 years.

Komodo dragons were first recorded by Western scientists in 1910. Their large size and fearsome reputation make them popular zoo exhibits. In the wild their range has contracted due to human activities and they are listed as vulnerable by the IUCN. They are protected under Indonesian law, and a national park, Komodo National Park, was founded to aid protection efforts..

The Komodo dragon is a vulnerable species  and is found on the IUCN Red List. There are approximately 4,000 to 5,000 living Komodo dragons in the wild. Their populations are restricted to the islands of Gili Motang (100), Gili Dasami (100), Rinca (1,300), Komodo (1,700), and Flores (perhaps 2,000). However, there are concerns that there may presently be only 350 breeding females. To address these concerns, the Komodo National Park was founded in 1980 to protect Komodo dragon populations on islands including Komodo, Rinca, and Padar. Later, the Wae Wuul and Wolo Tado Reserves were opened on Flores to aid with Komodo dragon conservation.

Komodo dragons avoid encounters with humans. Juveniles are very shy and will flee quickly into a hideout if a human comes closer than about 100 metres (330 ft). Older animals will also retreat from humans from a shorter distance away. If cornered, they will react aggressively by gaping their mouth, hissing, and swinging their tail. If they are disturbed further, they may start an attack and bite. Although there are anecdotes of unprovoked Komodo dragons attacking or preying on humans, most of these reports are either not reputable or caused by defensive bites. Only a very few cases are truly the result of unprovoked attacks by abnormal individuals which lost their fear towards humans.

Volcanic activity, earthquakes, loss of habitat, fire, loss of prey due to poaching, tourism, and illegal poaching of the dragons themselves have all contributed to the vulnerable status of the Komodo dragon. Under Appendix I of CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), commercial trade of skins or specimens is illegal.

On Padar, a former population of the Komodo Dragon became extinct, of which the last individuals were seen in 1975. It is widely assumed that the Komodo dragon died out on Padar after a strong decline of the populations of large ungulate prey, for which poaching was most likely responsible.

Acacia mangium

Kerajaan: Plantae, Ordo: Fabales,  Famili: Fabaceae, Genus: Acacia, Species: A. mangium

Nama Inggris : Brown salwood, black wattle, hickory wattle. Nama Indonesia : Tongke hutan, mangge hutan.

Deskripsi : Pohon berukuran sedang hingga besar, tinggi dapat mencapai 35 m, batang bergaris tengah 90 cm, kulit batang berwarna ciklat keabuan hingga coklat tua; daun lurus di satu sisi dan melengkung di sisi lain (seperti bulan sabit dengan cekungan dangkal), panjang 25 cm dan lebar 3.5-9 cm, memiliki 4 (atau 5) urat daun utama yang memanjang; perbungaan bulir, panjang bunga 1.2-1.5 mm, terdiri dari 5 daun bunga; buah kering lurus atau melingkar, panjang 10 cm dan lebar 0.3-0.5 cm, berkayu. Distribusi/Penyebaran : Acacia mangium tersebar di Kepulauan Sula, Seram, Kepulauan Aru, Irian Jaya, Propinsi Barat Papua New Guinea dan di bagian timur laut Queensland. 

Manfaat tumbuhan : Kayu Acacia mangium merupakan sumber bahan untuk konstruksi, pembuatan perahu dan lemari. Tumbuhan ini juga menghasilkan buburkayu yang telah memiliki warna putih yang bersih sehingga menghasilkan kertas dengan kualitas yang tinggi. Daunnya biasa dimanfaatkan sebagai pakan ternak. Selain itu, jenis tumbuhan ini juga dimanfaatkan sebagai tanaman perintis lahan bekas tambang batubara atau untuk penghijauan lahan kritis.

Panda

Kingdom: Animalia, Phylum: Chordata, Class: Mammalia, Order: Carnivora, Family: Ursidae, Genus: Ailuropoda, Species: A. melanoleuca,

The giant panda, or panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca, literally meaning "black and white cat-foot") is a bear native to central-western and south western China. It is easily recognized by its large, distinctive black patches around the eyes, over the ears, and across its round body. Though it belongs to the order Carnivora, the panda's diet is 99% bamboo. Pandas in the wild will occasionally eat other grasses, wild tubers, or even meat in the form of birds, rodents or carrion. In captivity they may receive honey, eggs, fish, yams, shrub leaves, oranges, or bananas along with specially prepared feed.

The giant panda lives in a few mountain ranges in central China, mainly in Sichuan province, but also in the Shaanxi and Gansu provinces. Due to farming, deforestation and other development, the panda has been driven out of the lowland areas where it once lived.

The panda is a conservation reliant endangered spesies.  A 2007 report shows 239 pandas living in captivity inside China and another 27 outside the country. Wild population estimates vary; one estimate shows that there are about 1,590 individuals living in the wild, while a 2006 study via DNA analysis estimated that this figure could be as high as 2,000 to 3,000. Some reports also show that the number of pandas in the wild is on the rise. However, the IUCN does not believe there is enough certainty yet to reclassify the species from Endangered to Vulnerable.

While the dragon has historically served as China's national emblem, in recent decades the panda has also served as an emblem for the country. Its image appears on a large number of modern Chinese commemorative silver, gold, and platinum coins. Though the panda is often assumed to be docile, it has been known to attack humans, presumably out of irritation rather than predation.

The giant panda is an endangered species, threatened by continued habitat loss and by a very low birthrate, both in the wild and in captivity. 

The giant panda has been a target for poaching by locals since ancient times and by foreigners since it was introduced to the West. Starting in the 1930s, foreigners were unable to poach giant pandas in China because of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War, but pandas remained a source of soft furs for the locals. The population boom in China after 1949 created stress on the pandas' habitat, and the subsequent famines led to the increased hunting of wildlife, including pandas. During the Cultural Revolution, all studies and conservation activities on the pandas were stopped. After the Chinese economic reform, demand for panda skins from Hong Kong and Japan led to illegal poaching for the black market, acts generally ignored by the local officials at the time.

Though the Wolong National Nature Reserve was set up by the PRC government in 1958 to save the declining panda population, few advances in the conservation of pandas were made, due to inexperience and insufficient knowledge of ecology. Many believed that the best way to save the pandas was to cage them. As a result, pandas were caged at any sign of decline, and suffered from terrible conditions. Because of pollution and destruction of their natural habitat, along with segregation due to caging, reproduction of wild pandas was severely limited. In the 1990s, however, several laws (including gun control and the removal of resident humans from the reserves) helped the chances of survival for pandas. With these renewed efforts and improved conservation methods, wild pandas have started to increase in numbers in some areas, even though they still are classified as a rare species.

In 2006, scientists reported that the number of pandas living in the wild may have been underestimated at about 1,000. Previous population surveys had used conventional methods to estimate the size of the wild panda population, but using a new method that analyzes DNA from panda droppings, scientists believe that the wild panda population may be as large as 3,000. Although the species is still endangered, it is thought that the conservation efforts are working. In 2006, there were 40 panda reserves in China, compared to just 13 reserves two decades ago.

The giant panda is among the world's most adored and protected rare animals, and is one of the few in the world whose natural inhabitant status was able to gain a UNESCO World Heritage Site designation. The Sichuan Gian Panda Sanctuaries, located in the southwest Sichuan province and covering seven natural reserves, were inscribed onto the World Heritage List in 2006.

Orangutan

Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primates Family: Hominidae Subfamily: Ponginae Genus: Pongo

Orangutans are the only exclusively Asian genus of extant great ape. The largest living arboreal animals, they have longer arms than the other, more terrestrial, great apes. They are among the most intelligent primate and use a variety of sophisticated tools, also making sleeping nests each night from branches and foliage. Their hair is typically reddish-brown, instead of the brown or black hair typical of other great apes.

Native to Indonesia, orangutans are currently found only in rainforests on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra though fossils have been found in Java, the Thai-Malay Peninsula, Vietnam and Mainland China. There are only two surviving species, both of which are endangered: theBornean Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) and the critically endangered Sumatran Orangutan (Pongo abelii). The subfamily Ponginae also includes the extinct genera Gigantopithecus and Sivapithecus. The word "orangutan" comes from the Indonesian words "orang" (man) and "(h)utan" (forest); hence, "man of the forest".

The populations on the two islands were classified as subspecies until recently, when they were elevated to full specific level, and the three distinct populations on Borneo were elevated to subspecies. The population currently listed as P. p. wurmbii may be closer to the Sumatran Orangutan than the Bornean Orangutan. If confirmed, abelii would be a subspecies of P. wurmbii (Tiedeman, 1808). Regardless, thetype locality of pygmaeus has not been established beyond doubts, and may be from the population currently listed as wurmbii (in which case wurmbii would be a junior synonym of pygmaeus, while one of the names currently considered a junior synonym of pygmaeus would take precedence for the northwest Bornean taxon). To further confuse, the name morio, as well as various junior synonyms that have been suggested, have been considered likely to all be junior synonyms of the population listed as pygmaeus in the above, thus leaving the east Bornean populations unnamed.

In addition, a fossil species, P. hooijeri is known from Vietnam, and multiple fossil subspecies have been described from several parts of southeastern Asia. It is unclear if these belong to P. pygmaeus or P. abeli or, in fact, represent distinct species.

The Sumatran species is critically endangered and the Bornean species of orangutans is endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals, and both are listed on Appendix I of CITES. The total number of Bornean orangutans is estimated to be less than 14% of what it was in the recent past (from around 10,000 years ago until the middle of the twentieth century) and this sharp decline has occurred mostly over the past few decades due to human activities and development. 

A 2007 study by the Government of Indonesia noted in 2004 it was estimated that there was a total wild population of 61,234 orangutans, 54,567 of which were found on the island of Borneo. The table below shows a breakdown of the species and subspecies and their estimated populations from the report.

This indicates a decline from some estimates between 2000 and 2003 which found 7,300 Sumatran Orangutan individuals in the wild and between 45,000 and 69,000 Bornean Orangutans. Thousands of orangutans don't reach adulthood due to human disruption. Orangutans are killed for food while others are killed because of disruption in people's property. Mother orangutans are killed so their infants can be sold as pets. Many of the infants die without the help of their mother. Since recent trends are steeply down in most places due to logging and burning, it is forecast that the current numbers are below these figures.

Orangutan habitat destruction due to logging, mining and forest fires, as well as fragmentation by roads, has been increasing rapidly in the last decade. A major factor in that period of time has been the conversion of vast areas of tropical forest to oil palm plantations in response to international demand (the palm oil is used for cooking, cosmetics, mechanics, and more recently as source of biodiesel). Some UN scientists believe that these plantations could lead to irreparable damage to orangutan habitat by the year 2012. Some of this activity is illegal, occurring in national parks that are officially off limits to loggers, miners and plantation development. There is also a major problem with hunting and illegal pet trade. In early 2004 about 100 individuals of Bornean origin were confiscated in Thailand and 50 of them were returned to Kalimantan in 2006. Several hundred Bornean orangutan orphans who were confiscated by local authorities have been entrusted to different orphanages in both Malaysia and Indonesia. They are in the process of being rehabilitated into the wild.

CITES

CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as the Washington Convention) is an international agreement between governments, drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The text of the convention was agreed upon in 1973, and CITES entered into force on July 1, 1975. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival and it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 33,000 species of animals and plants. In order to ensure that the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was not violated, the Secretariat of GATT was consulted during the drafting process.

Only one species protected by CITES, theSpix’s Macaw, has become extinct in the wild as a result of trade since the Convention entered into force (but see case studies in Hutton and Dickinson and Stiles for further discussion of the role CITES has played in the fate of particular species).

CITES is one of the largest conservation agreements in existence. Participation is voluntary, and countries that have agreed to be bound by the Convention are known as Parties. Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties, it does not take the place of national laws. Rather it provides a framework respected by each Party, which must adopt their own domestic legislation to implement CITES at the national level. Often, domestic legislation is either non-existent (especially in Parties that have not ratified it), or with penalties incommensurate with the gravity of the crime and insufficient deterrents to wildlife traders. As of 2002, 50% of Parties lacked one or more of the four major requirements for a Party: designation of Management and Scientific Authorities; laws prohibiting the trade in violation of CITES; penalties for such trade; laws providing for the confiscation of specimens.

The text of the Convention was finalized at a meeting of representatives of 80 countries in Washington, D.C., United States, on March 3, 1973. It was then open for signature until December 31, 1974. It entered into force after the 10th ratification by a signatory country, on July 1, 1975. Countries that signed the Convention become Parties by ratifying, accepting or approving it. By the end of 2003, all signatory countries had become Parties. States that were not signatories may become Parties by acceding to the Convention. As of 21 April 2009, 175 States had become Parties to the Convention with Bosnia and Herzegovina being the latest.

Funding for the activities of the Secretariat and COP meetings comes from a Trust Fund derived from Party contributions. Trust Fund money is not available to Parties to improve implementation or compliance. These activities, and all those outside Secretariat activities (training, species specific programmes such as Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants - MIKE) must find external funding (often from NGOS and  bilateral aid).

Although the Convention itself does not provide for arbitration or dispute in the case of noncompliance, 30 years of CITES in practice has resulted in several strategies to deal with infractions by Parties. The Secretariat, when informed of an infraction by a Party, will notify all other parties. The Secretariat will give the Party time to respond to the allegations and may provide technical assistance to prevent further infractions. Other actions the Convention itself does not provide for but that derive from subsequent COP 11 resolutions may be taken against the offending Party. These include:

·   Mandatory confirmation of all permits by the Secretariat

·   Suspension of cooperation from the Secretariat

·   A formal warning

·   A visit by the Secretariat to verify capacity

·   Recommendations to all Parties to suspend CITES related trade with the offending party

·   Dictation of corrective measures to be taken by the offending Party before the Secretariat will resume cooperation or recommend resumption of trade

Bilateral sanctions have been imposed on the basis of national legislation (e.g. the USA used certification under the Pelly Amendment to get Japan to revoke its reservation to hawksbill turtle products in 1991, thus reducing the volume of its exports).

Infractions may include negligence with respect to permit issuing, excessive trade, lax enforcement, and failing to produce annual reports (the most common).

Paphiopedilum

Paphiopedilum diambil dari bahasa Yunani paphius, nama lain dari Dewi Venus, dan pedilon yang berarti sepatu. Karena kecantikannya paphiopedilum diburu di alam untuk diperdagangkan. Khawatir punah, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Spesies (CITES) mengelompokkan anggrek kantung kedalam apendiks I. Artinya seluruh spesies paphiopedilum dilarang diperdagangkan kecuali hasil tangkaran.

Sebagian besar  Paphiopedilum tergolong anggrek terrestrial alias tumbuh di permukaan tanah atau sela-sela batu. Itulah sebabnya digunakan batu kerikil sebagai media tanam. Kerikil ditaburkan di sekeliling area perakaran. Agar tidak berceceran, digunakan cetakan dari gelas air mineral yang pinggirnya dibelah dan alasnya dipotong. Rongga-rongga di antara butiran kerikil memberikan ruang bagi pertumbuhan akar. Di sekeliling cetakan ditambahkan campuran paku andam, cacahan seresah daun bamboo, dan arang sekam. Setelah pot terisi media, cetakan diangkat.

Pemisahan kerikil dengan ketiga media lainnya dengan alasan ketiga jenis media itu rentan terkontaminasi npatogen seperti cendawan dan bakteri penyebab penyakit. Bagian anggrek yang rentan terkena penyakit adalah pangkal batang dan akar. Oleh sebab itulah perakaran tidak boleh bersentuhan langsung dengan campuran ketiga media itu. Jadi kerikil juga berperan melindungi pangkal batang dan perakaran.

Meski demikian, kombinasi keempat media itu bukanlah patokan mutlak. Yang penting bahan baku media tersedia melimpah. Paku andam dan cacahan seresah bamboo dipilih karena media tersebut lambat terurai. Dengan begitu, tak perlu repot-repot mengganti media, cukup diganti setahun sekali.

Sebelum dipindahkan ke media tanam, pastikan jumlah akar anggrek cukup banyak sehingga siap menyerap unsure hara. Anggrek direndam dahulu dalam larutan fungisida untuk mencegah tumbuhnya cendawan. Setelah dikeringkan, direndam dalam larutan B1 berdosis 1 cc/l untuk merangsang pertumbuhan akar. Anggrek kemudian ditanam pada campuran media arang, sekam, dan paku andam, tanpa pupuk. Tiga bulan berselang, anggrek siap dipindahkan ke media tanam utama.

Paphiopedilum lalu diletakkan di dalam rumah tanam dengan naungan shading net 70%. Artinya, intensitas cahaya mentari yang diterima tanaman hanya 30%. Setelah itu, pupuk cair berkadar N, P, dan K berimbang disemprotkan dengan interval sekali sepekan. Dan bisa juga ditambahkan larutan B1 dan fish emulsion berdosis 1 cc/l setiap dua pekan.